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Fall 2025 · Vol. 54 No. 2 · pp. 162–178 

Seeing Through a Confessional Lens: Renewing a Vision for Anabaptist/Mennonite Brethren Identity

Doug Heidebrecht

The five hundredth commemoration of the birth of the Anabaptist movement in Zurich in 1525 has given opportunity to reflect again on the meaning and significance of professions of Anabaptist identity today. Mennonite Brethren have consistently identified themselves as Anabaptist—F. C. Peters argued in 1959 that “it seems rather clear that the Mennonite Brethren revival [of 1860] was meant to be a return to the Anabaptist vision, rather than a deviation from it.” 1 However, in light of the pietist and Baptist influences during their formative years, Mennonite Brethren have often struggled with defining their identity, particularly in North America where they have focused on the assertion that they are both Anabaptist and evangelical. 2

Reading the Anabaptist and MB origin stories through the lens of the ICOMB confession of faith highlights the significance of God’s active working in the world through his Spirit.
p. 163

Contemporary debate about what defines an individual or community as “Anabaptist” has been indebted to the publication of Harold Bender’s Anabaptist Vision in 1944. 3 Bender offered a synthesis of Anabaptist’s “central teachings”: “first, a new conception of the essence of Christianity as discipleship; second, a new conception of the church as a brotherhood; and third, a new ethic of love and non-resistance.” 4 Palmer Becker later reframed Bender’s categories as three core values essential to being an Anabaptist Christian: “(1) Jesus is the center of our faith; (2) Community is the center of our life; and (3) Reconciliation is the center of our work.” 5

Attempts to define the essence of Anabaptist faith and practice for contemporary churches range from expressions of shared convictions within the historic Mennonite faith tradition to descriptions of the “bare essentials” by those who have embraced Anabaptism but have no historic links with Anabaptist-related denominations. 6 Mennonite Brethren (MB) have also sought to articulate their own particular Anabaptist story and practices by emphasizing their theological distinctives. 7 Unfortunately, these conversations have often failed to engage the perspective of the global MB family of churches represented by the International Community of Mennonite Brethren (ICOMB). 8

This global Mennonite Brethren family of churches, representing twenty-four conferences across twenty-one nations, reflects the coming together of diverse stories and cultures. Yet, each national conference has now joined the historic Anabaptist tradition as well as the more particular MB story. The formation of their identity as a global MB family of churches is grounded both in these shared stories as well as their shared theological convictions, expressed through the 2004 ICOMB confession of faith. 9

In this essay, I wish to offer a creative proposal for exploring the significance of the Anabaptist and MB beginning stories for the global MB family. 10 I propose that reading these stories through the lens of the ICOMB confession can help us see how they might offer a renewed vision for what it means to live faithfully as God’s people today. 11

God’s Spirit is Active

The ICOMB Confessional Lens

Unlike most Western confessions, the ICOMB Confession begins with a narrative: Part 1 asks the question, “How does God work in the world?” 12 This is essentially a summary of God’s mission, the missio Dei, which is described in six parallel sections. The big picture is framed by God’s creation of the world and the promised new creation. Key to God’s mission is the establishment of a covenant community, a people to live under his p. 164 reign as King and join him in his mission. This was expressed first through the formation of Israel in the Old Testament and then in the church in the New Testament. The center of God’s story is the saving actions of God through the sending of the Son and the Spirit, which reflects a profoundly trinitarian and missional focus.

God, the sovereign Lord of all, created the heavens and the earth . . .

God, the Deliverer, acted to establish a covenant people . . .

God the Father sent the Son, Jesus Christ . . .

At Pentecost, God sent the Holy Spirit . . .

The church is God’s new creation . . .

The new creation will be completed when Christ returns . . . 13

What is striking about this narrative is the emphasis on God’s actions—at least thirty-five times in this confession God is described as acting or doing something. The significance of this focus on God’s actions should not be overlooked. This is central to God’s story—he acts as both Creator and Redeemer. God created the world and made humans in his image, however, very soon he had to respond to their rebellion and resulting alienation, which was prompted by the evil powers of Satan, sin, and death. God took the initiative to act as Deliverer, first through establishing the people of Israel as a covenant community to live in relationship with him; and then by sending his Son into the world to inaugurate the reign of God, die for the sins of the world, and be raised to reconcile all creation to God. God then sent his Spirit to establish the church as Christ’s body on earth, both to model a people transformed under God’s reign and to act as agents of reconciliation, calling people to turn to God. The hope of a new creation under God’s rule will be fulfilled when Christ returns again.

Central to this narrative of how God works in the world is the recognition that God’s actions are not just observable in the biblical story from afar, but his saving actions can be vitally experienced by God’s people today. In response to God’s actions, people are called to repent, believe, confess Jesus as Lord, and follow in his way as his disciples. Those who respond to God experience being born anew, receiving the Spirit, and being baptized by the Spirit into one body. They are incorporated into a covenant community, the church, which is called to live as a foretaste of the new creation and as a model of God’s reign of peace and love. They are also called to join God’s story and what he is doing in the world, proclaiming Jesus and acting as agents of reconciliation on behalf of God himself. The ICOMB narrative proclaims that God continues to act through his Spirit, just as he did through the sending of his Son. p. 165

The Anabaptist Story

God’s active engagement in people’s lives by his Spirit, as portrayed in the ICOMB confession, also points back to the experience of the sixteenth-century Anabaptists. C. Arnold Snyder concludes his treatment of Anabaptist history and theology by declaring, “it is not an overstatement to say that early Anabaptist pneumatology was the sine qua non of the movement,” 14 that is, something absolutely essential to it. Snyder goes on to say, “the appeal to the active working of the Holy Spirit in believers was the bedrock [upon which the movement rested] . . . . The emergence of Anabaptism as a church renewal movement would not have taken place apart from the pneumatological rationale and impulse that underlay its more ‘visible’ features.” 15 Cornelius Dyck also asserts,

The new birth was the dynamic cause of early Anabaptism, with the Scriptures as the formal root cause and the Holy Spirit as the enabling power. The initial experience of new life in Christ, individually and in community, was what made discipleship, the church, peace and all other emphases possible . . . . As early as 1848 Max Goebel wrote, “The essential and distinguishing characteristic of this [Anabaptist] church is its great emphasis upon the actual personal conversion and regeneration of every Christian through the Holy Spirit.” 16

The sixteenth-century Anabaptists experienced God’s Spirit actively at work in their lives.

Menno Simons’s own story provides a vivid example. He was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood at the age of twenty-eight, but for over ten years he struggled spiritually. 17 Only a year after his ordination he began to have doubts about the Catholic mass, which was followed by questions regarding the practice of infant baptism. 18 Although he turned to the Bible and began to study it diligently, according to his own account of his spiritual journey, he failed to recognize his own blindness and sin. 19 He admitted,

There I spoke much concerning the Word of the Lord, without spirituality or love, as all hypocrites do, and by this means I made disciples of my own kind, vain boasters and frivolous babblers who, alas, like myself, did not take these matters too seriously. Although I had now acquired considerable knowledge of the Scriptures, yet I wasted that knowledge through the lusts of my youth in an impure, sensual, and unprofitable life, and sought nothing but gain, ease, favor of men, splendor, name and fame . . . . 20 p. 166

Finally, when he could bear this inner struggle no longer, he turned to the Lord,

My heart trembled within me. I prayed to God with sighs and tears that He would give me, a sorrowing sinner, the gift of His grace, create within me a clean heart, and graciously through the merits of the crimson blood of Christ forgive my unclean walk and frivolous easy life and bestow upon me wisdom, Spirit, courage, and a manly spirit so that I might preach His exalted and adorable name and Holy Word in purity, and make known His truth to His glory. 21

Menno encountered the conviction of God’s Spirit and through his submission to Christ, his heart was changed, and his life and practices began to be conformed to Jesus’ call to follow him.

The early Anabaptists were convinced that when the Holy Spirit brought new life, this rebirth did not simply bring a change in one’s legal status before God but actually changed the person from within. 22 Stuart Murray observes, “The Reformers spoke about the Spirit’s work and encouraged sanctification, but Anabaptists found much of what they said cold and lifeless, theoretical rather than experiential. For them, the Holy Spirit was a living reality, in their personal experience and in the activities of their congregations.” 23 Snyder concludes, “Anabaptist spiritual life was based on the decisive presence and power of God; God’s living presence would change everything . . . . [F]or the Anabaptists God’s presence was an experienced power that led them to repentance, to a new life in community and to a Christ-like life in the world.” 24 This enabled them to recognize the active role of the Spirit in the interpretation of Scripture, “not as adding to Scripture or as another source of authority, but as revealing the true depth of Scripture itself.” 25

The Mennonite Brethren Story

The later Mennonite Brethren movement similarly emerged in South Russia as a result of encountering the active working of God’s Spirit. The Mennonite emigration from Prussia (present-day Poland) to South Russia (present-day Ukraine) began in 1788 in response to the invitation from Empress Catherine for agricultural settlers and the promise of freedom of faith, land ownership, self-government, and non-participation in the military. 26 As time passed, the Mennonite colonies created a self-enclosed world that was geographically isolated and spiritually impoverished—“they had become a society to themselves. Religion and politics had intermingled, state and church had become one.” 27 Ironically, “the p. 167 Russian Mennonite church had taken on many of the characteristics of the European state church” experienced by the Anabaptists in the 1500s. 28

P. M. Friesen described the local church leaders as “blind leaders of the blind, void of any apparent education or theological knowledge as well as any spiritual life emanating from God.” 29 Nevertheless, some, like minister David Epp, were growing increasingly concerned. He lamented in his diary, “Godlessness increases because love grows cold . . . . Immoral conduct steadily intensifies . . . . Spiritually the community is in a drowsy state: drunkenness, adultery and fornication are prevalent as are lies and gossip.” 30

Renewal emerged within the colonies in various ways over several decades. One example is the arrival of a new congregation of immigrants from Prussia, which included a large number of Lutheran pietists who had been influenced by the Moravian Brethren. 31 They founded the village of Gnadenfeld in 1835, which quickly became a center for new spiritual life that was fostered by prayer meetings, weekly home Bible studies, and mission conferences. The church in Gnadenfeld created a nurturing context for renewal to develop. It is significant that most of the first Mennonite Brethren were either members of or associated with the Gnadenfeld congregation. 32

Eduard Wüst, a vibrant German pietist pastor who had come to serve a nearby Lutheran congregation, was regularly welcomed to speak at the Gnadenfeld church. 33 He brought a dramatic salvation message, proclaiming the need for a new birth, a “decisive, overwhelming experience expressing itself in inner joy. It was a dramatic event accompanied by a deep sense of sin and an intense struggle which climaxed in a lasting sense of salvation assurance.” 34

Wüst’s preaching had a significant impact among the Mennonites, with many experiencing a spiritual awakening. 35 Jacob Bekker, one of the founding members of the MB movement, described his conversion as a process of personal study of the Scriptures, involvement in a home Bible study group, and a lengthy agonizing over his sin. 36 He said, “gradually my heart lightened so that I believed my sins were forgiven.” 37 Later, while attending a house service, he experienced “intense joy for I felt absolutely certain that the Savior had also been born in me . . . . My heart leapt for joy because I knew I was a child of God.” 38

Those who experienced new life still found themselves in the same village churches with their rigid church structures and seemingly lifeless services. 39 They began to meet in private homes during the week where they could study the Scriptures together and express the joy of their p. 168 newfound salvation. They felt an unease with the practice of the Lord’s Supper in the Mennonite churches, where everyone in the village participated whether a confessed believer or not. At first, they asked one of the church elders to lead communion for a small home group, but he refused because he thought it would foster spiritual pride and cause disunity in the church. 40 However, a growing estrangement from the existing churches coupled with a desire to cultivate “intimate fellowship in their Bible study groups” prompted some to celebrate the Lord’s Supper in their homes according to the pattern of early church in Acts 2. 41 This brought them into direct conflict with the local colony/church leaders. News of this spread throughout the Gnadenfeld church, and some within the church harshly criticized those who had met together.

This small group, along with a few others, met again on January 6, 1860, and signed a hastily written Document of Secession that outlined their rationale for leaving the Mennonite colony churches. In this document, they highlighted the working of God’s Spirit in their lives and how a “genuine, living faith [is] effected by the Spirit of God” because it is only the “Spirit of Christ who alone can work true repentance.” 42 They asserted that the Lord’s Supper serves “to strengthen the faith of true believers” because “it is a sign that they stand in very intimate union with Jesus their Saviour.” 43

Andrew Dyck observes that “often, the Mennonite Brethren encounters with the Spirit bore striking resemblance to sixteenth-century Anabaptist encounters.” 44 Both the early Anabaptists and the first Mennonite Brethren gave witness to the active presence of God’s Spirit working in their lives, which resulted in new life. The story of God at work was not limited to the pages of the Bible; rather they experienced God’s Spirit actively calling them to repent, put their faith in him, and follow him in life. Part 1 of the ICOMB Confession expresses this shared conviction and asserts that Mennonite Brethren continue to be a small part of the active work of God in the world.

Being God’s People

The ICOMB Confessional Lens

Part 2 of the ICOMB Confession begins with the question, “How do Mennonite Brethren respond to God’s purpose?” How can Mennonite Brethren participate in God’s continuing story, as expressed in Part 1 of the Confession? The preamble to Part 2 reads, p. 169

The Mennonite Brethren Church is rooted in the Anabaptist movement of the 16th century Reformation, a movement that sought to recapture the faith and life of the New Testament church. The Mennonite Brethren Church was born within the Mennonite renewal in Russia in 1860. World mission and migration have produced a Church that circles the globe. As a worldwide MB fellowship we commit ourselves to be a people of God. 45

What follows are five sections that define who Mennonite Brethren are in relation to what God has done—we are: People of the Bible; People of a New Way of Life; People of the Covenant Community; People of Reconciliation; and People of Hope. The Confession does not say that their response is to believe certain doctrines, although it makes many theological assertions. The Confession does not say that their response is now to go do things for God, although it highlights many practices to follow. Rather the response of Mennonite Brethren, as a global family, is first of all to “commit ourselves to be a people of God.” The focus is on being, who they are, their identity.

This is a call to be a people who are shaped fundamentally by God’s story in response to the Spirit’s active engagement in their lives. “All who believe and confess Jesus as Lord are born anew into Christ”—and are now called to live as his disciples. 46 Discipleship does not take place by oneself, but with others who are also following Jesus, as part of a community of disciples. Not only does this mean God’s Spirit has changed a person on the inside— someone has new life—but they now are called to live differently together as the church. Because their relationship with God has changed, everything in their life is now being transformed, including their relationships with others.

The ICOMB confession not only summarizes what Mennonite Brethren understand the Bible to teach, but it also expresses their shared convictions regarding how God through his Word shapes who they are. The language of “convictions,” rather than simply “distinctives,” points to what an individual or community is committed to; that is, what they say they believe must also be reflected in their actions and behavior. 47 It is with this recognition that we again look through the lens of the ICOMB Confession to see the Anabaptist and MB stories.

The Anabaptist Story

Snyder contends that “the heart and soul of the Anabaptist movement is found in its soteriology, and central to that soteriology is the integral p. 170 linking of the inner and outer lives of believers . . . . [T]his inner/outer integration lay at the theological heart of the Anabaptist movement from the start . . . .” 48 Abraham Friesen also demonstrates how the principle of congruence between faith and practice, between beliefs and actions, “became the guiding principle of the entire movement. On a personal level it led to an emphasis on Christian discipleship; on an institutional level, to an emphasis on the recovery of the practices of the apostolic church.” 49

According to Friesen, “No matter where one looks in the early writings of the Anabaptists, it is not the theology of the Reformers that is criticized. . . . What they objected to was that Reformation theology did not lead to reform—that is, it was not implemented.” 50 The first formal expression of Anabaptist convictions was the Schleitheim confession written by Michael Sattler in 1527. The seven articles addressed shared convictions around baptism, the ban, the breaking of bread, separation from the world, the role of leaders in the congregation, the use of the sword, and the practice of taking oaths. 51 At first glance this list may seem inconsequential in relation to the foundational doctrines of the Christian faith, particularly from our vantage point today. For example, there was no discussion about creation, the Scriptures, the Trinity, Christ’s work of salvation through his death and resurrection, the nature of the church, or the end times. Since the Anabaptists did not contest orthodox theology, we may presume that what marked them apart from the Reformers were their particular distinctive qualities, and so we might be tempted to dismiss these as “nonessential.” Nevertheless, thousands of Anabaptist men and women laid down their lives for their convictions rather than give up what we may perceive as simply “nonessentials.”

However, if we recognize the Anabaptist concern for a congruence between faith and practice, between belief and actions, then we may begin to see the sustaining motivation underlying their shared convictions. The Anabaptists were convinced that if a person believes Jesus is Lord, then they must imitate his example and be willing to obey his commands. If someone has experienced new birth through the Holy Spirit, then they must bear witness to this new life, beginning with the sign of baptism. Anabaptists insisted that “the church was called to be the visible Body of Christ,” expressing Jesus’ love for one another and even for their enemies. 52 Hans Denck powerfully expressed this concern for unity between the inner and outer lives of believers: “No one can know Christ unless he follows after him in life and no one can follow him unless he first know him.” 53 “The basis of a true knowledge of Christ” was a life of discipleship, and p. 171 no one can be a disciple unless they have “a living experience of Christ and his Spirit.” 54

While Menno Simons wholeheartedly agreed with Luther that people can only be saved by God’s grace through faith, true faith must be expressed in one’s life and actions. Menno’s description of a true evangelical faith provides a robust understanding of a lived-out faith:

For true evangelical faith is of such a nature it cannot lie dormant, but manifests itself in all righteousness and works of love; it dies unto the flesh and blood; it destroys all forbidden lusts and desires; it seeks, serves and fears God; it clothes the naked; it feeds the hungry; it comforts the sorrowful; it shelters the destitute; it aids and consoles the sad; it returns good for evil; it serves those that harm it; it prays for those that persecute it; teaches, admonishes and reproves with the Word of the Lord; it seeks that which is lost; it binds up that which is wounded; it heals that which is diseased and it saves that which is sound; it has become all things to all men. The persecution, suffering and anguish which befalls it for the sake of the truth of the Lord is to it a glorious joy and consolation. 55

Menno concludes by saying, “All those who have such a faith, a faith that yearns to walk in the commandments of the Lord, to do the will of the Lord; these press on to all righteousness, love, and obedience . . . . But they diligently try to obey the Word of Christ in every particular, even if it leads to death for the body.” 56 This conviction was not just something Menno believed; it was something he was committed to because it defined his identity as a disciple of Jesus.

The Mennonite Brethren Story

Turning to the beginning of the MB movement, we can again observe some fascinating parallels with the earlier Anabaptists. In the 1860 Document of Secession, the first Mennonite Brethren intentionally refer to Menno Simons five times, highlighting both their dependence on him and their desire to stand in continuity with him. They introduce their specific concerns by stating, “In the articles, we are, according to our convictions from the Holy Scripture, in agreement with our dear Menno.” The document then concludes with their declaration, “In all other articles of our confession, we are in full agreement with Menno Simons.” 57 The first MB leaders consciously saw themselves remaining true to the historic Anabaptist-Mennonite confession of faith accepted by the larger Mennonite colonies that was first published in 1660. 58 In p. 172 fact, they continued to hold this same confession of faith for the first forty years of the movement.

The Document of Secession identifies five areas of concern: baptism, holy communion, footwashing, teachers in the church, and the ban. Again, we may be tempted to think that these first Mennonite Brethren were only concerned with some “nonessential” practices in the church and not core doctrines. However, I suggest that we are seeing again the earlier Anabaptist insistence on the congruence between faith and practice now being lived out in these Mennonite colonies by those who had experienced new life by the Spirit.

For example, this small group asserts, “we confess a baptism on faith, as a seal of faith; not on a memorized faith, as is the practice, but on a genuine, living faith effected by the Spirit of God. . . . Baptism is not the new birth, as some of the unconverted maintain, but serves as a sign for the baptismal candidate, that he is really born again.” 59 The outer sign of baptism must be an expression of an inner new birth—baptism without a new birth is meaningless.

They go on to state that holy communion “serves as a sign of the covenant and fellowship of believers, and not as a sign of the fellowship of believers and unbelievers with one another, as it is presently practiced.” 60 They quote Menno himself, “if someone errs in doctrine and faith, and walks in the flesh, he can in no case be permitted to fellowship with the godfearing and repentant . . . .” 61 The congruence of belief and actions underlies their concerns about everyone in the colony partaking of the Lord’s Supper without a genuine profession of faith. These first Mennonite Brethren were willing to risk physical punishment, their livelihood, and even the threat of deportation for their convictions.

Conclusion

Reading the Anabaptist and MB origin stories through the lens of the ICOMB confession of faith highlights the significance of God’s active working in the world through his Spirit. Mennonite Brethren are invited to join God’s ongoing story through repentance and faith, confessing Jesus as Lord, and following him in a life of discipleship. The confession also highlights the significance of the integral link between a believer’s inner and outer lives. Mennonite Brethren are called to be a people of God, whose identity is shaped by the congruence between belief and actions, between faith and practice.

Bender’s earlier Anabaptist Vision has been sharply critiqued by Stephen Dintaman as simplistic and “essentially behavioral,” which “gave p. 173 only passing, non-passionate attention to the work of Christ and the work of the Spirit in the inner transformation of the person.” 62 Yet, ironically, Bender himself believed and repeatedly taught “that the living out of the vision was only possible through the indwelling presence of Christ and the power of the Holy Spirit.” 63 Dintaman highlights how Bender “stated his Anabaptist vision against a horizon of assumed beliefs that are not explicitly stated in the vision.” 64 Interestingly, Becker’s expanded version of his three core values now includes the “transforming presence and work of the Holy Spirit” as “the central hub to our understanding of Jesus, community, and reconciliation” and as the common denominator between what happened in the Anabaptist movement and what is happening in churches today. 65 C. Arnold Snyder draws similar implications from his study of the Anabaptist movement: “A serious question confronting Believers’ Churches today would seem to be: Can there be a genuine ‘Believers’ Church’ in the absence of a strong and vital appeal to the activity of the Holy Spirit?” 66

While some leaders have acknowledged that Mennonite Brethren have at times “neglected the doctrine of the Holy Spirit,” others, like J. B. Toews, have challenged the church: “Correct theology, even Anabaptist theology, without the experiential knowledge of Christ through the Holy Spirit leaves the church impotent.” 67 The ICOMB confession highlights the active role of the Spirit in reading and interpreting Scripture, in renewing and cleansing along the discipleship journey, and in empowerment for witness and service. 68 This emphasis on the presence and active working of the Spirit among Mennonite Brethren does not emerge from outside influences but stands in continuity with the experience of the early Anabaptists and Mennonite Brethren.

Similarly, the call to be the people of God, with its inherent congruence between belief and actions, is identity shaping because it identifies who God, through the Scriptures, calls us to be. Both early Anabaptists and Mennonite Brethren refused to distinguish between Christian faith and how one lives. “For them there was no faith and no church without following Christ in everyday life. . . . Jesus was the model.” 69

These are the convictions that uphold us, the commitments that shape our choices, and the vision that challenges us to live out consistently through our actions who we say we are. Our story together as a global MB family is ongoing. While it is important to know our shared past, we must also embrace a shared vision for the future. It is here that the ICOMB confession can also offer us a way forward as it expresses a biblical vision p. 174 for who we are to be as a people of God, open to his Spirit transforming us into the image of Christ, both as individuals and as a family of churches.

John E. Toews contends that “Anabaptism is not a rigid model for us to follow . . . . But it is a powerful and radical witness to the incarnation of the Word of God in one epoch of history which calls all Christians (especially those who claim to be its descendants) to a similar fleshing out of New Testament faith and life in our times.” 70 The early Anabaptists and Mennonite Brethren provide concrete examples of how believers have sought to be faithful followers of Jesus who model the New Testament church in the face of incredibly difficult times. While their stories also hold negative examples, such as the temptation to co-opt the work of God’s Spirit for personal gain or the tendency to reframe discipleship into harsh legalistic expectations, they are witnesses to God’s redeeming work. As the global MB family of churches considers the significance of the early Anabaptist and Mennonite Brethren stories, it is not simply a list of what was distinctive to them, but rather their experience of the Spirit transforming them into the people of God that can encourage the church to faithfully follow Jesus today.

Notes

  1. F. C. Peters, “The Early Mennonite Brethren Church: Baptist or Anabaptist?” Mennonite Life 25 (October 1959): 178.
  2. Victor Adrian, “Born of Anabaptism and Pietism,” Mennonite Brethren Herald, March 26, 1965, insert; J. B. Toews, “Mennonite Brethren Diversity and Theological Adversity,” in Pilgrims and Strangers: Essays in Mennonite Brethren History, edited by Paul Toews (Fresno, CA: Center for Mennonite Brethren Studies, 1977), 133–57; Paul Toews, “Differing Historical Imaginations and the Changing Identity of Mennonite Brethren,” in Anabaptism Revisited edited by Walter Klaassen (Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1992), 155–72; Paul Toews, ed. Mennonites and Baptists: A Continuing Conversation (Winnipeg, MB: Kindred, 1993); and Brian Cooper, “What’s in a Narrative? Canadian Mennonite Brethren and the Struggle for Identity,” Conrad Grebel Review 37 (Fall 2019): 267–85. For reflections on the Mennonite Brethren relationship with evangelicalism, see Richard Kyle, “The Mennonite Brethren and American Evangelicalism: An Ambivalent Relationship,” Direction 20 (Spring 1991): 26–37; Patricia Janzen Loewen, “Embracing Evangelicalism and Anabaptism: The Mennonite p. 175 Brethren in Canada in the Late Twentieth Century,” MA Thesis, University of Manitoba, 2000; Bruce Guenther, “Reflections on Mennonite Brethren Evangelical Anabaptist Identity,” in Renewing Identity and Mission: Mennonite Brethren Reflections after 150 Years, edited by Abe J. Dueck, Bruce L. Guenther, and Doug Heidebrecht (Winnipeg, MB: The Historical Commission, 2011), 47–82; Doug Heidebrecht, “Living Our Identity: Mennonite Brethren as evangelical and Anabaptist,” Mennonite Brethren Herald, October 3, 2019.
  3. Paul Martens, “Challenge and Opportunity: The Quest for Anabaptist Theology Today,” in Recovering from the Anabaptist Vision: New Essays in Anabaptist Identity and Theological Method, edited by Laura Schmidt Roberts, Paul Martens, and Myron A. Penner (London: T & T Clark, 2020): 4; Harold S. Bender, “The Anabaptist Vision,” Mennonite Quarterly Review 18, no. 2 (1944): 67–88, also published as a pamphlet by Herald Press in 1944.
  4. Bender, “The Anabaptist Vision,” 78.
  5. Palmer Becker, What is an Anabaptist Christian? (Elkhart, IN: Mennonite Mission Network, 2008), 2–3. See also Becker’s Anabaptist Essentials: Ten Signs of a Unique Christian Faith (Harrisonburg, VA: Herald, 2017).
  6. See John D. Roth, Beliefs: Mennonite Faith and Practice (Scottdale, PA: Herald, 2005); Alfred Neufeld, What We Believe Together: Exploring the “Shared Convictions” of Anabaptist-Related Churches, 2d ed. (New York: Good, 2015); Stuart Murray, The Naked Anabaptist: The Bare Essentials of a Radical Faith (Scottdale, PA: Herald, 2010); and idem, The New Anabaptists: Practices for Emerging Communities (Harrisonburg, VA: Herald, 2024).
  7. A. E. Janzen, Mennonite Brethren Distinctives (Hillsboro, KS: Mennonite Brethren Publishing House, 1966); Katie Funk Wiebe, Who Are the Mennonite Brethren? (Winnipeg, MB: Kindred, 1984); Lynn Jost and Connie Faber, Family Matters: Discovering the Mennonite Brethren (Winnipeg, MB: Kindred, 2002); and Andrew Dyck, et al, eds. Family Matters: Discovering the Mennonite Brethren, rev. Canadian ed. (Winnipeg, MB: Board of Faith and Life, 2019).
  8. An exception was the 1988 Mennonite Brethren World Mission Conference in Curitiba, Brazil. See Victor Adrian and Donald Loewen, eds., Committed to World Mission: A Focus on International Strategy (Winnipeg, MB: Kindred, 1990).
  9. See “What We Believe,” ICOMB, https://www.icomb.org/introduction-2/. For an introduction to the ICOMB Confession, see Doug Heidebrecht, “Shared Global Mennonite Brethren Convictions: Reflections on the ICOMB Confession of Faith,” Direction 48 (Fall 2019): 149–60.
  10. Paul Martens highlights the pervasive challenge of attempting to bridge the chasm between the sixteenth and twenty-first centuries with his caution that “we must recognize that whatever is referred to as Anabaptist theology p. 176 today is a reconstruction that is, at best, either loosely or selectively tied to the sixteenth century” (Paul Martens, “Challenge and Opportunity,” 3).
  11. C. J. Dyck has previously highlighted the parallels between the Anabaptist and Mennonite Brethren stories. See C. J. Dyck, “1525 Revisited? A Comparison of Anabaptist and Mennonite Brethren Origins,” in Pilgrims and Strangers: Essays in Mennonite Brethren History, edited by Paul Toews (Fresno, CA: Center for Mennonite Brethren Studies, 1977), 55–77.
  12. “Part 1: How does God work in the world?” ICOMB Confession of Faith, https://www.icomb.org/part-1-how-does-god-work-in-the-world/.
  13. “Part 1: How does God work in the world?” ICOMB Confession of Faith.
  14. C. Arnold Snyder, Anabaptist History and Theology: An Introduction (Kitchener, ON: Pandora, 1995), 379. See also Peter J. Klassen, “The Anabaptist View of the Holy Spirit,” in The Witness of the Holy Spirit: Proceedings of the Eighth Mennonite World Conference, edited by Cornelius J. Dyck (Elkhart, IN: Mennonite World Conference, 1967), 242–48.
  15. Snyder, Anabaptist History and Theology, 379.
  16. Cornelius J. Dyck, Spiritual Life in Anabaptism (Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1995), 52.
  17. Dyck, Spiritual Life in Anabaptism, 41.
  18. Abraham Friesen, Erasmus, the Anabaptists, and the Great Commission (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), 104.
  19. Friesen, Erasmus, 104.
  20. Menno Simons, “Reply to Gellius Faber” in The Complete Writings of Menno Simons, edited by J. C. Wenger (Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1956), 669.
  21. Simons, “Reply to Gellius Faber,” 671.
  22. Andrew Dyck, “Fresh Air for the Good House of Menno: The Holy Spirit among Canada’s Mennonite Brethren,” Direction 47 (Fall 2018): 210.
  23. Stuart Murray, Biblical Interpretation in the Anabaptist Tradition (Kitchener, ON: Pandora, 2000), 131.
  24. C. Arnold Snyder, Following in the Footsteps of Christ: The Anabaptist Tradition (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2004), 66.
  25. Murray, Biblical Interpretation in the Anabaptist Tradition, 152. See also Dyck, “Fresh Air for the Good House of Menno,” 210.
  26. Family Matters, Canadian ed., 12–13.
  27. J. B. Toews, A Pilgrimage of Faith: The Mennonite Brethren Church in Russia and North America 1860–1990 (Winnipeg, MB: Kindred, 1993), 7.
  28. Family Matters, Canadian ed., 13.
  29. P. M. Friesen, The Mennonite Brotherhood in Russia (1789–1910) (Fresno, CA: Board of Christian Literature, 1980), 54.
  30. John B. Toews, Perilous Journey: The Mennonites in Russia 1860–1910 (Winnipeg, MB: Kindred, 1988), 9. p. 177
  31. J. A. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church: Pilgrims and Pioneers (Fresno, CA: Board of Christian Literature, 1975), 28.
  32. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church, 29.
  33. See Harold Jantz, “A Pietist Pastor and the Russian Mennonites: The Legacy of Eduard Wuest,” Direction 36 (Fall 2007): 232–46.
  34. John B. Toews, “The Early Mennonite Brethren and Conversion,” Journal of Mennonite Studies 11 (1993): 82.
  35. Jacob P. Bekker, Origin of the Mennonite Brethren Church (Hillsboro, KS: Mennonite Brethren Historical Society, 1973), 25.
  36. Toews, “The Early Mennonite Brethren and Conversion,” 90.
  37. Toews, “The Early Mennonite Brethren and Conversion,” 90.
  38. Toews, “The Early Mennonite Brethren and Conversion,” 90.
  39. John B. Toews, “Mennonite Brethren Beginnings,” in For Everything a Season: Mennonite Brethren in North America, 1874–2002, edited by Paul Toews and Kevin Enns-Rempel (Fresno, CA: Historical Commission, 2002), 7.
  40. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church, 32.
  41. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church, 32.
  42. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church, 34–35.
  43. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church, 34.
  44. Dyck, “Fresh Air for the Good House of Menno,” 221.
  45. “Part 2: How do Mennonite Brethren respond to God’s Purpose?” ICOMB Confession of Faith (italics added), https://www.icomb.org/part-2-how-do-mennonite-brethren-respond-to-gods-purpose/.
  46. “Part 1: How does God work in the world?” ICOMB Confession of Faith, https://www.icomb.org/part-1-how-does-god-work-in-the-world/.
  47. James Wm. McClendon, Jr. and James M. Smith define a “conviction” as “a persistent belief such that if X (a person or community) has a conviction, it will not be easily relinquished and it cannot be relinquished without making X a significantly different person (or community) than before.” See Convictions: Defusing Religious Relativism, rev. ed. (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1994), 5.
  48. Snyder, Anabaptist History and Theology, 384.
  49. Friesen, Erasmus, 109.
  50. Friesen, Erasmus, 100.
  51. “Schleitheim Confession,” https://www.anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php/Schleitheim_Confession_(source).
  52. Snyder, Anabaptist History and Theology, 90.
  53. Murray, Biblical Interpretation in the Anabaptist Tradition, 189.
  54. Murray, Biblical Interpretation in the Anabaptist Tradition, 189. p. 178
  55. Menno Simons, “Why I Do Not Cease Teaching and Writing,” in The Complete Writings of Menno Simons, 307.
  56. Simons, “Why I Do Not Cease Teaching and Writing,” 307.
  57. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church, 34–35.
  58. Abram John Klassen, “Mennonite Brethren Confessions of Faith: Historical Roots and Comparative Analysis” (STM thesis, Union College of British Columbia, 1965), 105.
  59. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church, 34.
  60. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church, 34.
  61. Toews, A History of the Mennonite Brethren Church, 34.
  62. Stephen F. Dintaman, “The Spiritual Poverty of the Anabaptist Vision,” Conrad Grebel Review 10 (Spring 1992): 205. See also idem, “Reading the Reactions to ‘The Spiritual Poverty of the Anabaptist Vision,’ ” Conrad Grebel Review 13, no. 1 (1995): 2–20; idem, “The Pastoral Significance of the Anabaptist Vision,” Mennonite Quarterly Review 69, no. 3 (July 1995): 307–22. For further reflections on the Anabaptist Vision, see Brian Froese, “ ‘The Anabaptist Vision’: A Half-Century of Historical and Religious Debate in Twentieth-Century America,” Fides et Historia 35 (Summer/Fall 2003): 105–17, and Paul Martens, “How Mennonite Theology Became Superfluous in Three Easy Steps: Bender, Yoder, Weaver,” Journal of Mennonite Studies 33 (2015): 149–66.
  63. Dintaman, “The Spiritual Poverty of the Anabaptist Vision,” 205.
  64. Dintaman, “The Spiritual Poverty of the Anabaptist Vision,” 205.
  65. Palmer Becker, Anabaptist Essentials, 158–59.
  66. C. Arnold Snyder, Anabaptist History and Theology: Revised Student Edition (Kitchener, ON: Pandora, 1997), 413.
  67. J. B. Toews, “Spiritual Renewal,” in The Witness of the Holy Spirit: Proceedings of the Eighth Mennonite World Conference, edited by Cornelius J. Dyck (Elkhart, IN: Mennonite World Conference, 1967), 59. See also Hans Pankratz, “Understanding the Mennonite Brethren,” in Committed to World Mission: A Focus on International Strategy, edited by Victor Adrian and Donald Loewen (Winnipeg, MB: Kindred, 1990), 35.
  68. “Part 2: How do Mennonite Brethren respond to God’s Purpose?” ICOMB Confession of Faith, https://www.icomb.org/part-2-how-do-mennonite-brethren-respond-to-gods-purpose/.
  69. John E. Toews, “The Meaning of Anabaptism for Twentieth Century Mennonites,” in Pilgrims and Strangers: Essays in Mennonite Brethren History, edited by Paul Toews (Fresno, CA: Center for Mennonite Brethren Studies, 1977), 163.
  70. Toews, “The Meaning of Anabaptism for Twentieth Century Mennonites,” 166.
Doug Heidebrecht (PhD, Wales) serves as the Director of Global Training and Associate Professor of Mission and Theology at MB Seminary (Langley, BC) and also works in an international setting. An earlier version of this article was presented at the 2025 ICOMB Summit in Bielefeld, Germany.

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